4 During the 19th century, marines were not permanently organized into tactical maneuver organization such as battalions and regiments. 3 Only when a small number of landing personnel were required might the marines carry them out without assistance of the ships crew. Marines assigned to ships were small in numbers and their primary duty was as ship’s guard, accordingly navy infantry assault operations, be it boarding or operations ashore, were largely ships company evolutions. Likewise, landings and operations ashore were normal. At sea, boarding was a recognized tactic. The use of sailors as infantry (and as artillerymen ashore) was common during the 19th century. Future consideration of sailors as infantry must consider combat support services. Logistics and support poor, naval infantry could not sustain itself very long. Sustainability has been the Achilles heel of the use of Navy forces as infantry.During the Cold War practical emphasis shifted to infantry defense of shore installations, although fleet units still maintained infantry capabilities.Even then, organized infantry capabilities continued to be required both afloat and ashore until the 1970s. It was not until establishment of the Fleet Marine Force in 1933 that the use of Navy landing parties declined.All fleet units were required to maintain, and train, landing parties. Army, not Marine, tactical doctrine during its formative period reflecting a desire for inter-service interoperability. During the Cold War period naval infantry schools existed. The Navy promulgated infantry tactical doctrine in 1891and continuously refined and updated it until 1965.Operations ranged from election security, pacification, peacekeeping, land convoy escort, protection of roads and railroads, occupation, and guard duty to large-scale major combat operations against regular Army forces. It was the Navy’s most valuable contribution during the Philippine Insurrection. Using sailors as infantry ashore was what the Navy’s primarily did during the Seminole Wars and the War with Mexico. Sailors performed as infantry a lot: at least 66 landings and operations ashore on distant stations during the 19th century 136 instances in the Caribbean and Central America during the first three decades of the 20th century numerous times on China Station and elsewhere.Everyone in the Navy accepted that the use of sailors as infantry was a required Navy’s competency. The debate centered on how to best use “our officers and men as efficient infantry and artillerymen,” not around the desirability or utility of use of sailors as infantry. Use of sailors as infantry was part of the late 19th century great debate by naval reformers over the direction of the Navy.Marines were a minority and landings were generally a ships company evolution, i.e., involving both marines and sailors. The use of sailors as infantry (and as artillerymen ashore) was common during the 19th century. Up until the 1970s, competency as naval infantry-sailors performing as infantry, and sometimes providing land based artillery support-was an integral part of the Navy’s operations and mission.
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